Detainee Abuse at Abu Ghraib Prison :

Sadism or Scapegoating? The Institutional and Discursive Support for Torture in the War on Terror

Authors

  • Rachel Joyce King's College London

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.54945/jjia.v3i1.41

Abstract

This article analyses the reports of various military and intelligence institutions in the United States in response to the Abu Ghraib torture scandal which destroyed the reputation of the armed forces in the Iraqi theatre of war in 2004. The photographs delegitimised the mission and provoked strong reaction from the occupied Iraqis. The reports attributed culpability for the abuses perpetrated on the imprisoned Iraqis to 'sadistic' and criminal soldiers and deflected responsibility from senior members of the military and the decay within the institution itself, brought on by the discourse of terror and the introduction of techniques amounting to torture. This article, taking Abu Ghraib and the avoidance of responsibility for atrocity as an example, seeks to comment on the presumed limitations imposed on the applicability of international law during the 'War on Terror', the brutality of the military as an institution and the resulting alterations in the mind-set of individualsbyinherentdehumanisation of theenemyin conflict.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Metrics

Metrics Loading ...

Author Biography

Rachel Joyce, King's College London

PhD Candidate, King's College London and Legal Consultant and Researcher at the Every Casualty programme of Oxford Research Group.

Downloads

Published

2013-10-01

How to Cite

Joyce, R. (2013). Detainee Abuse at Abu Ghraib Prison : : Sadism or Scapegoating? The Institutional and Discursive Support for Torture in the War on Terror. Jindal Journal of International Affairs, 3(1), 42–84. https://doi.org/10.54945/jjia.v3i1.41

Issue

Section

Articles

References

“Abu Ghurayb Abuse Chronology”. 2009. Global Security - www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/iraq/abu-ghurayb-chronology.html

“A Class Divided” 1985. PBS Frontline Documentary - www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/divided/etc/view.html

Alford, C. F. 1997. “Review: Hitler's Willing Executioners: What Does 'Willing' Mean?” ‘ , 26(5), October Akande, D. 2003. “The Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court over Nationals of Non-Parties: Legal Basis and Limits”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, (1), pp.618-650’ DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jicj/1.3.618

‘American Civil Liberties Union. 2009. “ACLU Obtains Detailed Official Record of CIA Torture Program” & “Attorney General Holder to Appoint Prosecutor to Investigate Torture,” August 24th www.aclu.org’

American Psychiatric Association (APA). 1994. in Baumeister, R. F. and Campbell W. K. 1999 “The Intrinsic Appeal of Evil: Sadism, Sensational Thrills and Threatened Egotism,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 3 (3) pp.210 – 221.

Amnesty International – www.amnesty.org

‘---. 2000.’ “USA: A Call to Action by the UN Committee Against Torture,” July AMR 51/56/00

‘---. 2005.’ “Cruel. Inhuman. Degrades Us All. Questions and Answers.”

‘---. 2006.’ “Beyond Abu Ghraib: Detention and Torture in Iraq”

“A Question of Torture”. 2005. PBS Frontline Documentary, October 18th

Arendt, H. 1963/2006. , New York: Penguin Books;

‘---. 1995.’ Reflections on Violence, New York: Harcourt Brace

Association for the Prevention of Torture – www.apt.ch

Ausseresses, General P. 2006. New York; Enigma Books

Badkhen, A. 2006. “Atrocities are a Fact of All Wars, Even Ours” San Francisco Chronicle, August, 13th

Baldwin, T. 2009. “Torture Memos Acted as a 'Golden Shield' to Help American Interrogators Try to Stay Within the Law” April 18th

Bauman, Z. 1989. Cambridge: Polity

Baumeister, R. F. 1997. in Baumeister, R. F. and Campbell W. K. 1999. “The Intrinsic Appeal of Evil: Sadism, Sensational Thrills and Threatened Egotism,” pp.210 – 221

Baumeister, R. F. and Campbell W. K. 1999. “The Intrinsic Appeal of Evil: Sadism, Sensational Thrills and Threatened Egotism,” Personality and Psychology Review 3, pp.210 - 221

Beccaria, C. 1764. in Bellamy, R. (ed.) 1995. On Crimes and Punishments and Other Writings, Cambridge: University Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511802485

Beigbeder, Y. and Nijhoff, M. 2006. Judging War Crimes and Torture: French Justice and International Criminal Tribunals and Commissions (1940-2005), Boston: Leiden DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004153295.i-378

Berner, W., Benger, P. and Hill, A. 2003. “Sexual Sadism” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparison 47, pp.383 - 395

Bingham, Lord T. (2009) Politicians and Judiciary Plenary at the Convention of Modern Liberty Institute of Education, February 28th

Bloche, M. G. and Marks, J. H., (2005) “Doing unto Others as They Did to Us” The New York Times, November 4th

Bolton, John R., Under Secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security, Letter to UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, May 6, 2002 in Krasnor, E. 2004. “American Disengagement with the International Criminal Court: Undermining International Justice and U.S. Foreign Policy Goals” The Online Journal of Peace and Conflict Resolution, 6(1) Fall pp.179-191

Bordin, J. 2002. in Wolfendale, J. 2007. Torture and the Military Profession, New York: Palgrave MacMillan DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230592803

Bowden, Mark 2004. “The Lessons of Abu Ghraib” Atlantic Monthly, July/August pp.33 -36

Box, S. 1971. in Rock, P. 2007. “Sociological Theories of Crime” in Maguire, M., Morgan, R. and Reiner, R. 2007. The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Brass, M. 2001. “Torture to Prevent Terrorism? Interview With a French Master Torturer” Soldier of Fortune Magazine, www.military.com

Brison, S. J. 2004. “Torture, or 'Good Old American Pornography'” Chronicle of Higher Education, 50 (39)

Browning, C. 1998. Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland, New York: Harper Perennial

Buchanan, A. 2004. Justice, Legitimacy and Self-Determination, Oxford: Oxford University Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/0198295359.001.0001

Bush, G. W. 2002. “The President's State of the Union Address” January 29th http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2000 /01/print/20020129-11.html

Carnahan, T. and McFarland, S. 2007. “Revisiting the Stanford Prison Experiment: Could Participant Self-Selection Have Led to the Cruelty?” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 33 (5) pp.603-615 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206292689

Centre for Constitutional Rights, “CCR Files First New Challenges to Military Commissions Act”, 6 October 2006

Cheney, D. – 2001. on NBC News “Meet the Press” With Tim Russert, http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/bush/cheneymeetthepress.htm

in “Cheney Defends US “Torture” Policy, www.Aljazeera.net, May 22nd Church, Vice Admiral A. T. (2005) “Department of Defense review of detention operations and interrogation techniques: Executive Summary,” http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/iraq/abu-ghurayb-prisoninvestigation.htm

CNN News 2001. “Attacks Draw Mixed Response in Mideast” www.CNN.com September 12th

Cohen, S. – 2005. “Post-moral Torture: From Guantanamo to Abu Ghraib” Index on Censorship Vol.34 (1) pp.24-30 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03064220512331339427

'---. 2001. States of Denial, Cambridge: Polity

“Human Rights and Crimes of the State: The Culture of Denial” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 27 pp.97 – 115

Cole, D. and Lobel, J. 2007.“Why We're Losing the War on Terror” The Nation, September 24th

Conroy, J. 2001. Unspeakable Acts, Ordinary People, Berkeley: University of California Press

Cortright, D. 2006. “Reminiscences of Resistance” Peace Review, 18 (2) pp.207 – 214. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10402650600692359

Crelinsten, R. 2005. “How to Make a Torturer” Index on Censorship, 34 (1) pp.72 – 77. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03064220512331339508

Cruz, A. 2006. in The Fifth Estate 2006. “A Few Bad Apples” Documentary CBS News November 16th

Danchey, A. 2008. Review: “Bad Apples, Dead Souls: Understanding Abu Ghraib” International Affairs, 84 (6) pp.1271-1280 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2008.00768.x

Danner, M. 2009. “Torture: Holding America to Account” & “The Red Cross Torture Report: What it Means” The Guardian, April 18th

Danelius, H. 1998. “Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment” United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law

Darby, J. 2006. in Hylton, W. S. 2006. “Prisoner of Conscience” GQ Magazine, September Issue www.men.style.com/gq/features/landing?id=content_4785/

Davis, J. in The Fifth Estate. 2006. “A Few Bad Apples” Documentary CBS News November 16th ; & quoted in Taguba, MG A. M. 2004. “AR 15-6 Investigation of the 800th Military Police Brigade”

Davis, K. in The Fifth Estate. 2006. “A Few Bad Apples” Documentary CBS News November 16th

Derbyshire, D. 2002. “When They Played Guards and Prisoners in the US, It Got Nasty. In Britain, They Became Friends,” The Daily Telegraph, May 3rd

Dershowitz, A. – 1989. “Is it Necessary to Apply Physical Pressure to Terrorists…and to Lie About it?” Israel Law Review , 23 2004. “Torture Should be Legalised and Regulated” in Roth, K. and Worden, M. (2004) Torture: Does it Make us Safer? Is it Ever OK? New York: The New Press pp.192 – 200 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021223700016721

“Tortured Reasoning” in Levinson, S. (ed) 2004. Torture: A Collection, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Dicks, H.V. 1972. Licensed Mass Murder: A Socio-Psychological Study of Some SS Killers, London : Heinemann

Durkheim, E. 1897. in Rock, P. 2007. “Sociological Theories of Crime” in Maguire, M., Morgan, R. and Reiner, R. 2007. The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, Oxford: Oxford University Press

England, L. 2009. Interview by Lucy Ash, BBC World Service http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/outlook/2009/02/090205_lynndie_ england.shtml?s

Evans, M. 2009. “British Intelligence Prosecution Fears over US Torture Memos” April 18th

Fay, Major General George R., 2004. “AR 15-6 Investigation of the Abu Ghraib Detention Facility and 205th Military Intelligence Brigade & Jones”, Lieutenant General Anthony R., 2004. “AR 15-6 Investigation of the Abu Ghraib Prison and 205th Military Intelligence Brigade” http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/iraq/abu-ghurayb-prisoninvestigation.htm

Fein, H. 1990. “Genocide: A Sociological Perspective” Current Sociology, 38 (1-111) DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/001139290038001001

Fekete, L. 2004. “Anti-Terrorism and Human Rights” European Race Bulletin, 47, London: Institute of Race Relations DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396805055083

Fellner, J. 2004. “Torture in US Prisons” in Roth, K. and Worden, M. (2004) Torture: Does it Make us Safer? Is it Ever OK? New York, The New Press

Felson, M. 2002. Crime and Everyday Life, 3rd ed., Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications

The Fifth Estate 2006. “A Few Bad Apples” Documentary CBS News November 16th www.cba.ca/fifth/badapples/resource.html

Forrest, D. 1996. A Glimpse of Hell, London: Amnesty International

Freud, S. in Kernberg, O. F. 2003. “Sanctioned Social Violence: A Psychoanalytic View, Part 2” International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 84, pp.953 - 968

https://www.genevaconventions.org/

Gearty, C. 2005. “With a Little Help from our Friends” Index on Censorship, 34(1) pp.46 – 53 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03064220512331339463

Gibson, T. 2007. “Terrorism, Torture and Ethics” Associate of King's College Recordings, Autumn, Lecture 8

Goldhagen, D. J. 1997. Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Persons and the Holocaust, London: Abacus DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02823096

Golding, W. 1954. Lord of the Flies, New York: Capricorn Books

Gonzales, R. J. 2007. “Patai and Abu Ghraib” Anthropology Today, 23 (5) pp.23 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8322.2007.00538.x

Goring, C. 1913. in Rock, P. 2007. “Sociological Theories of Crime” in Maguire, M., Morgan, R. and Reiner, R. 2007. The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Gottfredson, M. R. and Hirschi, T. 1990. A General Theory of Crime, California: Stanford University Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781503621794

Gourevitch, P. 2009. “Interrogating Torture” The New Yorker, May 9th

Gray, G. and Zielinski, A. 2006. “Psychology and U.S. Psychologists in Torture and the War in the Middle East” Torture 16 pp.128 – 133 http://www.irct.org/Default.aspx?ID=1038

Green, P. and Ward, T. 2004. State Crime, London: Pluto Press

Greenberg, K. and Dratel, J.L. 2005. The Torture Papers: The Road to Abu Ghraib, New York: Cambridge University Press

Gross, Michael L. 2009. Moral Dilemmas of Modern Warfare, Cambridge University Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511811562

Grossman, D. 1995. On Killing, Boston: Little, Brown and Company

The Guantanamo Testimonials Project, Centre for the Study of Human Rights in the Americas – www.humanrights.ucdavis.edu

Haddock, V. 2006. “The Science of Creating Killers” San Francisco Chronicle, August 13th

Haim, G. 1996. “Political Evil: Legalised and Concealed Sadism” in Gordon,

N. and Marton, R. 1996. Torture: Human Rights, Medical Ethics and the Case of Israel, London: Zed Books

Hamre, J. J. 2004. Statement to Select Committee on Intelligence, July 20th – www.intelligence.senate.gov/conclusions.pdf

Haney, C., Banks, C. and Zimbardo, P. 1973. “Interpersonal Dynamics in a Simulated Prison” International Journal of Criminology and Penology, 1 pp.69 – 97 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21236/AD0751041

Herbert, B. 2004. “'Gooks to 'Hajis'” The New York Times, May 21st

Hersh, S. 2004. “Torture at Abu Ghraib” The New Yorker, May 10th

Hersh, S. 2004. “Chain of Command” The New Yorker, May 17th

Hersh, S. 2004. “The Gray Zone” The New Yorker, May 24th

Hinton, A. 2002. Annihilating Difference: The Anthropology of Genocide, California: UCLA DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520230286.001.0001

Hirsch, M. 2005. “Truth about Torture” www.Newsweek.com November 7th Hirschi, T. 1969. Causes of Delinquency, Berkeley: University of California Press

Hochschild, A. 2004. “What's in a Word? Torture” The New York Times, May 23rd Hodson, G. and Costello, K. 2007. “Interpersonal Disgust, Ideological Orientation and Dehumanisation as Predictors of Intergroup Attitudes” Psychological Science 18 (8) pp.691 - 698 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01962.x

Hoffman, B. 2006. “The End of the Empire and the Origins of Contemporary Terrorism” Columbia University Press Inside Terrorism 2nd Edition, New York: Columbia University Press

Hollins, C. R. 2007. ”Criminological Psychology” in Maguire, M., Morgan, R. and Reiner, R. 2007. The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Hooks, G. and Mosher, C. 2005. “Outrages Against Personal Dignity: Rationalising Abuse and Torture in the War on Terror” Social Forces, 83 (4) pp.1627 – 1645 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2005.0068

Huggins, M. K., Haritos-Fatouros, M. and Zimbardo, P. 2002. Violence Workers: Police Torturers and Murderers Reconstruct Brazilian Atrocities, Berkeley: University of California Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520928916

Human Rights Watch – www.hrw.org

“Leadership Failure: Firsthand Accounts of Torture of Iraqi Detainees by US Army's 82nd Airborne Division, September 24th

“The Road to Abu Ghraib”, June

Website Update, January 22nd

Huq, A. 2007. “Bitter Fruit: Constitution Gender Equality Comes to the Military” in McKelvey, T. (ed.) One of the Guys: Women as Aggressors and Torturers, Emeryville, CA: Seal

Ignatieff, M. 2004. “Moral Prohibiton at a Price” in Roth, K. and Worden, M. 2004. Torture: Does it Make us Safer? Is it Ever OK? New York, The New Press

International Committee of the Red Cross. 2004. “Report of the ICRC on the Treatment by Coalition Forces of Prisoners of War and Other Protected Persons by the Geneva Conventions in Iraq During Arrest, Internment and Interrogation” http://www.cryptome.org/icrc-report.htm

Jenkins, J. 2008. “The Torturer's Tale” The First Post, November 6th

Kalyvas, S. N. 2006. The Logic of Violence in Civil War, Cambridge: CUP DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511818462

Kaplan, J. 2006. “Islamaphobia in America?: September 11th Islamaphobic Hate Crime” Terrorism and Political Violence, 18(1) pp.1-33 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550500383209

Karminer, D. and Stein, D. J. 2001. “Sadistic Personality Disorder in Perpetrators of Human Rights Abuses: A South African Case Study,” Journal of Personality Disorders, 15(6) pp.475 – 486 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.15.6.475.19191

Karpinski, J. (with Steven Strasser) 2005. One Woman's Army: The Commanding General of Abu Ghraib Tells Her Story, New York: Miramax Press

Karstedt, S. 2006. “Democracy, Values and Violence: Paradoxes, Tensions and Comparative Advantages of Liberal Inclusion” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 605 (50) DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716206288248

Katz, J. 1990. The Seductions of Crime, New York: Basic Books

Kaufman–Osborn, T. 2007. in Zurbriggen, E. L. 2008. “Sexualised Torture and Abuse at Abu Ghraib Prison: Feminist Psychological Analyses” Feminism Psychology, pp.301 – 320

Keen, S. 1986. Faces of the Enemy: Reflections on the Hostile Imagination, New York: Harper & Row Kekes, J. 2007. The Roots of Evil, New York: Cornell University Press

Kelman, H. C. and Hamilton, V. L. 1989. Crimes of Obedience: Toward a Social Psychology of Authority and Responsibility, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press

Kelman, H. C. 1973. “Violence Without Moral Restraint: Reflections on the Dehumanisation of Victims and Victimisers” pp.25-61, Journal of Social Issues, 29 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1973.tb00102.x

Kernberg, O. F. 2003. “Sanctioned Social Violence: A Psychoanalytic View, Part 2” The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 84 pp.953 - 968 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1516/NNQX-V7X9-DGCV-M8T8

Www.killology.com

Krasnor, E. 2004. “American Disengagement with the International Criminal Court: Undermining International Justice and U.S. Foreign Policy Goals” The Online Journal of Peace and Conflict Resolution, 6 (1) Fall pp.179-191

KUBARK Counter-Intelligence Interrogation, Langley, VA: Central Intelligence Agency – www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEB/NSAEB122/

Lambert, E. G., Hogan, N. L. and Cluse-Taylor, T. 2007. “This Job is Killing Me: The Impact of Job Characteristics on Correctional Staff Job Stress” Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice, 3(2) pp.117 – 142

Levi, P. 1995. Survival in Auschwitz: The Nazi Assault on Humanity, New Jersey: Touchstone

Levinson, S. (ed) 2004. Torture: A Collection, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Leyens, J. P., Rodriguez, A. P., Rodriguez, R. T., Gaunt, R., Paladino, M. P., Vaes, J., et al. 2001. “Psychological Essentialism and the Differential Attribution of Uniquely Human Emotions to Ingroups and Outgroups” European Journal of Social Psychology, 31 pp.395, 411 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.50

Lifton, R. J. 1986. The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide, London: MacMillan

Limbaugh, R., 2004 “It's Not about Us, This is War!” The Rush Limbaugh Show, May 4th – www.sourcewatch.org/index.php title=Rush_Limbaugh

MacMaster, N. 2004 “Torture: From Algiers to Abu Ghraib” Race and Class, 46 (2) pp.1 - 21 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396804047722

Maeise, M. 2003. “Dehumanisation” www.beyondintractibility.org, July

Maier-Katkin, D., Mears, D. P. & Bernard, T.J. 2009 “Towards a Criminology of Crimes Against Humanity” Theoretical Criminology, 13 (2) pp.227 - 255 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480609102880

Maran, R. 1989. Torture: The Role of Ideology in the French-Algerian War, New York: Praegar

Marks, S and Clapham, A. 2005. International Human Rights Lexicon, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Marshall, W. L., Kennedy, P. & Yates, P. 2002. in Berner, W., Benger, P. and Hill, A. 2003. “Sexual Sadism” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparison, 47 pp.383 - 395 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X03256131

Maslach, C. 1999. in Zimbardo, P. 2007. The Lucifer Effect, London: Rider Press pp.171

Matza, D. 1964. Delinquency and Drift, London: Wiley

McCain, J. – 2004. “Respecting the Geneva Conventions” in Roth, K., Worden, M. 2004. Torture: Does it Make us Safer? Is it Ever OK? New York, The New Press; & 2005. “The Truth About Torture” Newsweek, November 21st - www.humanrightsfirst.org/us_law/etn/pdf/mccain100305.pdf; www.mccain.senate.gov/index.cfm?fuseaction=newscentre.viewpressrelea se&content_id=1611>&content_id=1611

McCoy, A. W. .2006. A Question of Torture: CIA Interrogation from the Cold War to the War on Terror, New York: Owl Books/Henry Holt & Co.

McNamara, L. 2007. Notes on an Ethnographic Scandal” Anthropology News, 48(7) pp.4-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/an.2007.48.7.4

Mejia, C. 2007. “My Road Out of Iraq” Colorlines 39, July/August

Merton, 1964. in Rock, P. 2007. “Sociological Theories of Crime” in Maguire, M., Morgan, R. and Reiner, R. 2007. The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Milgram, S. 1974. Obedience to Authority, New York: Harper and Row

Milbank, D. 2004. “US Tries to Control Furor Posed by Photos, Bush Vows Punishment for Abuse of Prisoners” The Washington Post, May 1st

Miller, A. G. 1999. “Harming Other People: Perspectives on Evil and Violence” Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3 pp.176 – 178 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0303_1

Mikolashek, Lieutenant General Paul T. 2004. “Department of the Army Inspector General Inspection Report on Detainee Operations,” 21st July - http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/iraq/abu-ghurayb-prison- investigation.htm

Miller, MG G. D. 2004. 'Assessment of DoD Counter-Terrorism Interrogation and Detention Operations in Iraq,' September 9th in Taguba, MG A. M. 2004. “AR 15-6 Investigation of the 800th Military Police Brigade'

Montagu, A. and Matson, F. 1983. The Dehumanization of Man, New York: The McGraw-Hill Book Company

Moore, A. 2009. “The Invention of Sadism? The Limits of Neologisms in the History of Sexuality,” Sexualities,12 (486) DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460709105715

Myer, C. 2004. “Ethics Under Fire at Abu Ghraib” September DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/an.2004.45.6.16

National Lawyer's Guild (NLG) (2009) “White Paper on the Law of Torture and Holding Accountable those who are Complicit in Approving Torture of Persons in US Custody” International Association of Democratic Lawyers - http://www.nlgsf.org/docs/NLGWhitePaper_Yoo.pdf

Nelson, H. 2004. in Taguba, MG A. M. 2004. “AR 15-6 Investigation of the 800th Military Police Brigade”

Neumann, P.R. and Smith, M.L.R. 2005. “Strategic Terrorism: The Framework and its Fallacies” The Journal of Strategic Studies, 28(4) pp.571-595 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01402390500300923

The New York Times 2009. “Complete Coverage: A Guide to the Memos on Torture,” www.nytimes.com/ref/international/24MEMO- GUIDE.html

Office of the Inspector General 2008. “Review of the FBI's Involvement in and Observation of Detainee Interrogations in Guantanamo Bay, Afghanistan and Iraq” http://hosted.ap.org/specials/interactives/wdc/ documents/oig_detainees052008.pdf

Obama, B., 2009. in Reid, T., 2009. “Pressure Grows to Impeach Judge Jay Bybee over 'Torture Memos'” The Times, April 29th

Orwell, G. 1949. 1984, Middlesex: Penguin Books

Osiel, M. – 2001. Mass Atrocity, Ordinary Evil and Hannah Arendt Yale: Yale University;

---1997. Mass Atrocity, Collective Memory and the Law, New Brunswick: Transaction Patai, R. 1973. The Arab Mind, New York: Scribner

Pershing, J. L. 2006. “Men and Women's Experience with Hazing in a Male- Dominate Military Institution” Men and Masculinities, 8(4) pp.470-492 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X05277411

Philp, C. 2009. “The Torture Memos: Obama's Truth and Reconciliation” The Times, April 17th

Plakias, T. 2006. in Zimbardo, P. 2007. The Lucifer Effect, London: Rider Press

Pokempner, D. 2004. “Command Responsibility for Torture” in Roth, K. and Worden, M. 2004. Torture: Does it Make us Safer? Is it Ever OK? New York, The New Press www.prisonexp.org

Ramirez, R. L. 1990. in Huggins, M. K., Haritos-Fatouros, M. and Zimbardo, P. 2002. Violence Workers: Police Torturers and Murderers Reconstruct Brazilian Atrocities, Berkeley: University of California Press

Reicher, S. and Haslam, A. – 2004. “Why Not Everyone is a Torturer” www.news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3700209.stm;

---2006. “Rethinking the Psychology of Tyranny: the BBC Prison Experiment” British Journal of Social Psychology, 45(1) pp.1-40 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1348/014466605X48998

Reid, T. 2009. “CIA Report into Bush Administration's Treatment of Suspects Released” The Times, August 23rd

Rejali, D. 2004. “Torture's Dark Allure” www.salon.com June 18th;

---2007. Torture and Democracy, New Jersey: Princeton University Press

Robinson, P., de Lee, N. and Carrick, D. 2008. Ethics Education in the Military, Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Company

Robson, C. 2002. Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioners (2nd edition), London: Blackwell

Rock, P. 2007. “Sociological Theories of Crime” in Maguire, M., Morgan, R. and Reiner, R. 2007. The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Rose, D. 2008. “Tortured Reasoning” Vanity Fair, December 16th

Ross, L. 1977. “The Intuitive Psychologist and His Shortcomings: Distortions in the Attribution Process” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, (10) New York: Academic Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60357-3

Roth, K. 2004. “Justifying Torture” in Roth, K. and Worden, M. 2004. Torture: Does it Make us Safer? Is it Ever OK? New York, The New Press

Roth, K. and Worden, M. 2004. Torture: Does it Make us Safer? Is it Ever OK? New York, The New Press

Ryder, MG D. J. 2003. 'Report on Detention and Corrections in Iraq,' November 6th in Taguba, MG A. M. 2004. “AR 15-6 Investigation of the 800th Military Police Brigade' http://www.Samkeen.com/

Sasson-Levy, 0. and Rapoport, T. 2003. “Body, Gender and Knowledge in Protest Movements” Gender and Society, 17(3) pp.379 – 403 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243203017003006

Savage, C. 2006. “Bush Challenges Hundreds of Laws” The Boston Globe, April 30th

Scarry, E. – 1985. The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World, Oxford: Oxford University Press;

“The Difficulty of Imagining Other Persons,” in Weiner, E. 1998. The Handbook of Interethnic Coexistence, New York: Continuum

Schneider, K. 2001. “The Enemy Within” New York Times Magazine, January 7th

Schlesinger, The Honorable James R. 2004 “Final Report of the Independent Panel to Review Department of Defence Operations”, with the Honorable Harold Brown, the Honorable Tillie K. Fowler, and General Charles A. Horner -http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/iraq/abu- ghurayb-prison-investigation.htm DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/e424742005-001

Scully, D. 1990. Understanding Sexual Violence, Boston: Unwin Hyman

Seligman, M. E. P. 1975. Helplessness: On Depression, Development and Death, San Francisco: Freeman

Sifton, J. 2007. of Human Rights Watch, in White, J. 2007. “Abu Ghraib Officer Cleared of Detainee Abuse ” The Washington Post, August 29th

Sivanandan, A. 2006. “Race, Terror and Civil Society” Race & Class, 47 (1) pp.2 – 5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396805058070

Smith, R. W. 1999. in Chorbajian, L. and Shirinian, G. 1999. Studies in Comparative Genocide, London: Macmillan DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-27348-5

Www.soa.org

Solomon, R. and Corbit, J. D. 1974. in Baumeister, R. F. and Campbell W. K. 1999. “The Intrinsic Appeal of Evil: Sadism, Sensational Thrills and Threatened Egotism,” Personality and Psychology Review, 3 pp.210 - 221 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0303_4

Sontag, S. 2004. “Regarding the Torture of Others” New York Times Magazine, May 23rd

Spivey, C. B. and Prentice-Dunn, S. 1990. “Assessing the Directionality of Deindividuated Behaviour: Effects of Deindividuation, Modeling, and Private Self-Consciousness on Aggressive and Pro-Social Responses” Basic and Applied Psychology, 4 pp.387 - 403 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1104_3

Staub, E. 1989. The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Steiner, J. 1980. in Green, P. and Ward, T. 2004. State Crime, London: Pluto Press

Sullivan, A. 2009. “One Tortured Lie: That's All It Took For War” The Times, April 26th

Www.supportmpscapegoats.com

Sutherland, E.1947. in Rock, P. 2007. “Sociological Theories of Crime” in Maguire, M., Morgan, R. and Reiner, R. 2007.

The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Sykes, G. and Matza D., 1957 “Techniques of Neutralisation: a Theory of Delinquency” American Sociology Review, 22 pp.664 – 670 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2089195

Taguba, Major General Antonio M. 2004. “AR 15-6 Investigation of the 800th Military Police Brigade,” May 2nd http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/iraq/abu-ghurayb-prison-investigation.htm

Townsend, K. 2005. “We Have Ways of Making you Talk” BBC News, April 5th United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhumane and Degrading Treatment and Punishment, 1975 - http://www.hrweb.org/legal/cat.html

Weschler, L. 1990. A Miracle, AUniverse: Settling Accounts With Torturers, New York: Penguin Books

White, J. – 2007. “Abu Ghraib Officer Cleared of Detainee Abuse” The Washington Post, August 29th

“Abu Ghraib Guards Say Memos Show They Were Scapegoats” The Washington Post, May 1st

White, J and Smith, J. 2005. “Abuse Review Exonerates Policy” The Washington Post, March 10th

Wolf, N. 2009. “We Are All Torturers in America” The Guardian, April 28th Wolfendale, J. 2007. Torture and the Military Profession, New York: Palgrave MacMillan

World Health Organisation. 1992. World Health Organisation's ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders, www.who.int

Yoo, J. – (2004) “The US Military Need Not Obey the Geneva Conventions When Dealing With Suspected Terrorists” in Roth, K., Worden, M. 2004. Torture: Does it Make us Safer? Is it Ever OK? New York, The New Press;

in Interview in The Fifth Estate. 2006. “A Few Bad Apples” Documentary CBS News November 16th

Zimbardo, P. – 2003. “Phantom Menace: Is Washington Terrorising Us More than al-Qaeda?” Psychology Today pp.34 – 36; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/e592222007-021

---2007. The Lucifer Effect, London: Rider Press Zuckerman, M. 1979. Sensation Seeking, London: Wiley

Zurbriggen, E. L. 2008. “Sexualised Torture and Abuse at Abu Ghraib Prison: Feminist Psychological Analyses” Feminism Psychology pp.301 – 320 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353508092083